Unit heat consumption of buildings in Finland

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Question

What is the average unit heat consumption (energy purchase, kWh/m2/year) of different types of residential buildings in Finland?

Characterisation of buildings:

Building type (detached house, row house, apartment building)
Construction decade
Primary heat source (light oil, pellet, district heat, electricity, geothermal)

Answer

u.factor(-)
Obs	Surface	Construction.year	Unit	Result
1	Outside wall	<1960	W/(m2K)	0.48
2	Outside wall	1960	W/(m2K)	0.40
3	Outside wall	1970	W/(m2K)	0.30
4	Outside wall	1980	W/(m2K)	0.28
5	Outside wall	1990	W/(m2K)	0.28
6	Outside wall	2000	W/(m2K)	0.25
7	Outside wall	2010	W/(m2K)	0.17
8	Roof	<1960	W/(m2K)	0.30
9	Roof	1960	W/(m2K)	0.28
10	Roof	1970	W/(m2K)	0.25
11	Roof	1980	W/(m2K)	0.25
12	Roof	1990	W/(m2K)	0.16
13	Roof	2000	W/(m2K)	0.16
14	Roof	2010	W/(m2K)	0.09
15	Ground floor	<1960	W/(m2K)	0.30
16	Ground floor	1960	W/(m2K)	0.30
17	Ground floor	1970	W/(m2K)	0.30
18	Ground floor	1980	W/(m2K)	0.30
19	Ground floor	1990	W/(m2K)	0.30
20	Ground floor	2000	W/(m2K)	0.25
21	Ground floor	2010	W/(m2K)	0.16
22	Window	<1960	W/(m2K)	2.1
23	Window	1960	W/(m2K)	1.9
24	Window	1970	W/(m2K)	1.6
25	Window	1980	W/(m2K)	1.4
26	Window	1990	W/(m2K)	1.4
27	Window	2000	W/(m2K)	1.4
28	Window	2010	W/(m2K)	1
29	Outer door	<1960	W/(m2K)	1.4
30	Outer door	1960	W/(m2K)	1.4
31	Outer door	1970	W/(m2K)	1.4
32	Outer door	1980	W/(m2K)	1.4
33	Outer door	1990	W/(m2K)	1.4
34	Outer door	2000	W/(m2K)	1.4
35	Outer door	2010	W/(m2K)	1

surface.area(-)
Obs	Surface	Construction.year	Unit	Result
1	Outside wall	<1960	m2	92
2	Outside wall	1960	m2	98
3	Outside wall	1970	m2	105
4	Outside wall	1980	m2	109
5	Outside wall	1990	m2	112
6	Outside wall	2000	m2	114
7	Outside wall	2010	m2	114
8	Roof	<1960	m2	109
9	Roof	1960	m2	124
10	Roof	1970	m2	144
11	Roof	1980	m2	158
12	Roof	1990	m2	166
13	Roof	2000	m2	176
14	Roof	2010	m2	176
15	Ground floor	<1960	m2	109
16	Ground floor	1960	m2	124
17	Ground floor	1970	m2	144
18	Ground floor	1980	m2	158
19	Ground floor	1990	m2	166
20	Ground floor	2000	m2	176
21	Ground floor	2010	m2	176
22	Window	<1960	m2	10.9
23	Window	1960	m2	12.4
24	Window	1970	m2	14.4
25	Window	1980	m2	15.8
26	Window	1990	m2	16.6
27	Window	2000	m2	17.6
28	Window	2010	m2	17.6
29	Outer door	<1960	m2	3.4
30	Outer door	1960	m2	3.4
31	Outer door	1970	m2	3.4
32	Outer door	1980	m2	3.4
33	Outer door	1990	m2	3.4
34	Outer door	2000	m2	3.4
35	Outer door	2010	m2	3.4

ventilation.rate(-)
Obs	Construction.year	Unit	Result
1	<1960	dm3/s/m2	0.25
2	1960	dm3/s/m2	0.25
3	1970	dm3/s/m2	0.25
4	1980	dm3/s/m2	0.35
5	1990	dm3/s/m2	0.35
6	2000	dm3/s/m2	0.35
7	2010	dm3/s/m2	0.35

ventilation.heat.recovery(-)
Obs	Construction.year	Result
1	<1960	0
2	1960	0
3	1970	0
4	1980	0
5	1990	0
6	2000	0
7	2010	0.45

air.leak.factor(-)
Obs	Construction.year	Unit	Result
1	<1960	/h	0.32
2	1960	/h	0.32
3	1970	/h	0.28
4	1980	/h	0.24
5	1990	/h	0.16
6	2000	/h	0.16
7	2010	/h	0.08

building.characteristics(-)
Obs	Parameter	Unit	Result
1	Number of floors	m	1
2	Room height	m	2.5
3	Indoor air temperature	C	21
4	Inhabitants	no of persons	2.4
5	Hot water use	l/person/d	45
6	Water heating system heat loss	kWh/m2/month	1.5

total.floor.area(-)
Obs	Construction.year	Unit	Result
1	<1960	m2	109
2	1960	m2	124
3	1970	m2	144
4	1980	m2	158
5	1990	m2	166
6	2000	m2	176
7	2010	m2	176

outdoor.temperature(-)
Obs	Location	Month	Unit	Result
1	South	1	C	-6.2
2	South	2	C	-6.7
3	South	3	C	-2.6
4	South	4	C	2.9
5	South	5	C	9.9
6	South	6	C	14.6
7	South	7	C	16.9
8	South	8	C	15
9	South	9	C	9.8
10	South	10	C	4.8
11	South	11	C	-0.3
12	South	12	C	-4
13	West	1	C	-7.4
14	West	2	C	-7.7
15	West	3	C	-3.3
16	West	4	C	2.2
17	West	5	C	9
18	West	6	C	14.1
19	West	7	C	16
20	West	8	C	14
21	West	9	C	8.8
22	West	10	C	3.9
23	West	11	C	-1.5
24	West	12	C	-5.4
25	East	1	C	-10.2
26	East	2	C	-9.9
27	East	3	C	-4.6
28	East	4	C	1
29	East	5	C	8.1
30	East	6	C	13.6
31	East	7	C	15.9
32	East	8	C	13.3
33	East	9	C	8
34	East	10	C	2.7
35	East	11	C	-3.2
36	East	12	C	-7.8
37	North	1	C	-11.7
38	North	2	C	-11
39	North	3	C	-6.1
40	North	4	C	-1
41	North	5	C	5.8
42	North	6	C	12.2
43	North	7	C	14.9
44	North	8	C	12.1
45	North	9	C	6.6
46	North	10	C	0.2
47	North	11	C	-6.1
48	North	12	C	-10

residential.building.location(-)
Obs	Location	Construction.year	Unit	Result
1	South	<1960	fraction of all	0.42
2	South	1960	fraction of all)	0.39
3	South	1970	fraction of all)	0.37
4	South	1980	fraction of all	0.38
5	South	1990	fraction of all	0.43
6	South	2000	fraction of all	0.47
7	South	2010	fraction of all	0.42
8	West	<1960	fraction of all	0.32
9	West	1960	fraction of all)	0.3
10	West	1970	fraction of all)	0.31
11	West	1980	fraction of all	0.28
12	West	1990	fraction of all	0.27
13	West	2000	fraction of all	0.27
14	West	2010	fraction of all	0.29
15	East	<1960	fraction of all	0.15
16	East	1960	fraction of all)	0.15
17	East	1970	fraction of all)	0.15
18	East	1980	fraction of all	0.16
19	East	1990	fraction of all	0.14
20	East	2000	fraction of all	0.11
21	East	2010	fraction of all	0.13
22	North	<1960	fraction of all	0.1
23	North	1960	fraction of all)	0.16
24	North	1970	fraction of all)	0.17
25	North	1980	fraction of all	0.18
26	North	1990	fraction of all	0.16
27	North	2000	fraction of all	0.15
28	North	2010	fraction of all	0.16

period.length(-)
Obs	Month	Unit	Result
1	1	h	744
2	2	h	672
3	3	h	744
4	4	h	720
5	5	h	744
6	6	h	720
7	7	h	744
8	8	h	744
9	9	h	720
10	10	h	744
11	11	h	720
12	12	h	744

soil.temperature.difference(-)
Obs	Month	Unit	Result
1	1	C	0
2	2	C	-1
3	3	C	-2
4	4	C	-3
5	5	C	-2
6	6	C	-2
7	7	C	0
8	8	C	1
9	9	C	2
10	10	C	3
11	11	C	3
12	12	C	2

heating.season(-)
Obs	Month	Result	Kuvaus
1	1	1	1=yes, 0=no
2	2	1	1=yes, 0=no
3	3	1	1=yes, 0=no
4	4	1	1=yes, 0=no
5	5	1	1=yes, 0=no
6	6	0	1=yes, 0=no
7	7	0	1=yes, 0=no
8	8	0	1=yes, 0=no
9	9	1	1=yes, 0=no
10	10	1	1=yes, 0=no
11	11	1	1=yes, 0=no
12	12	1	1=yes, 0=no

Calculations

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library(OpasnetUtils)
library(ggplot2)

#Data tables are converted into ovariables and stored

u.factor <- Ovariable(name= "u.factor", ddata = "Op_en5397", subset = "u.factor", getddata = FALSE)

surface.area <- Ovariable(name= "surface.area", ddata = "Op_en5397", subset = "surface.area", getddata = FALSE)

ventilation.rate <- Ovariable(name= "ventilation.rate", ddata = "Op_en5397", subset = "ventilation.rate", getddata = FALSE)

ventilation.heat.recovery <- Ovariable(name= "ventilation.heat.recovery", ddata = "Op_en5397", subset = "ventilation.heat.recovery", getddata = FALSE)

air.leak.factor <- Ovariable(name= "air.leak.factor", ddata = "Op_en5397", subset = "air.leak.factor", getddata = FALSE)

building.characteristics <- Ovariable(name= "building.characteristics", ddata = "Op_en5397", subset = "building.characteristics", getddata = FALSE)

total.floor.area <- Ovariable(name= "total.floor.area", ddata = "Op_en5397", subset = "total.floor.area", getddata = FALSE)

outdoor.temperature <- Ovariable(name= "outdoor.temperature", ddata = "Op_en5397", subset = "outdoor.temperature", getddata = FALSE)

residential.building.location <- Ovariable(name= "residential.building.location", ddata = "Op_en5397", subset = "residential.building.location", getddata = FALSE)

period.length <- Ovariable(name= "period.length", ddata = "Op_en5397", subset = "period.length", getddata = FALSE)

soil.temperature.difference <- Ovariable(name= "soil.temperature.difference", ddata = "Op_en5397", subset = "soil.temperature.difference", getddata = FALSE)

heating.season <- Ovariable(name= "heating.season", ddata = "Op_en5397", subset = "heating.season", getddata = FALSE)


objects.store(u.factor, surface.area, ventilation.rate, ventilation.heat.recovery, air.leak.factor, building.characteristics, total.floor.area, outdoor.temperature, residential.building.location, period.length, soil.temperature.difference, heating.season)

cat("Ovariablet tallennettu.\n")

#oprint(u.factor)
#oprint(surface.area)
#oprint(air.exchange)
#oprint(building.characteristics)
#oprint(outdoor.temperature)
#oprint(residential.building.location)
oprint(ventilation.rate)


#Average monthly outdoor temperature for a residential building in Finland. Calculated based on monthly average temperatures and location of residential buildings in different parts of Finland

average.outdoor.temperature.month <- Ovariable(
	
	name="average.outdoor.temperature.month",
	dependencies = data.frame(
		Name=c("outdoor.temperature", "residential.building.location"),
		Ident= c("Op_en5397")
	),
	formula = function(dependencies, ...) {
		
		out <- outdoor.temperature * residential.building.location

		out <- out@output[ , c("Location", "Month", "Construction.year", "Result")]
		out <- aggregate(out[,colnames(out)=='Result'],by=list(out$Month, out$Construction.year),FUN="sum", na.rm="TRUE")
		names(out) <- c("Month","Construction.year", "Result")
		#out <- aggregate(out[,colnames(out)=='Result'],by=list(out$Construction.year),FUN="mean",na.rm="TRUE")
		#names(out) <- c("Construction.year", "Result")

		return(out)
	}
)


#oprint(EvalOutput(average.outdoor.temperature.month))


#Average annual outdoor temperature for a residential building in Finland. Calculated based on monthly average temperatures.

average.outdoor.temperature.year <- Ovariable(
	
	name="average.outdoor.temperature.year",
	dependencies = data.frame(
		Name=c("outdoor.temperature", "residential.building.location"),
		Ident= c("Op_en5397")
	),
	formula = function(dependencies, ...) {

		#cat("Average outdoor temperature for a residential building in Finland. Calculated based on monthly average temperatures and location of residential buildings in different parts of Finland \n")
		
		out <- outdoor.temperature * residential.building.location

		#out@output <- out@output[ , c("Location", "Month", "Construction.year", "Result")]
		#out@output <- aggregate(out@output[,4],by=list(out@output$Month, out@output$Construction.year),FUN="sum", na.rm="TRUE")
		#names(out@output) <- c("Month","Construction.year", "average.outdoor.temperatureResult")


		out <- out@output[ , c("Location", "Month", "Construction.year", "Result")]
		out <- aggregate(out[,colnames(out)=='Result'],by=list(out$Month, out$Construction.year),FUN="sum", na.rm="TRUE")
		names(out) <- c("Month","Construction.year", "Result")
		out <- aggregate(out[,colnames(out)=='Result'],by=list(out$Construction.year),FUN="mean",na.rm="TRUE")
		names(out) <- c("Construction.year", "Result")

		return(out)
	}
)


#oprint(EvalOutput(average.outdoor.temperature.year))



#Heat loss via heat conduction through outside walls, roof, ground floor, windows, and doors

conduction.heat.loss <- Ovariable(
	
	name="conduction.heat.loss",
	dependencies = data.frame(
		Name=c("u.factor", "surface.area", "average.outdoor.temperature.month", "average.outdoor.temperature.year", "period.length", "soil.temperature.difference"),
		Ident= c("Op_en5397")
	),
	formula = function(dependencies, ...) {

		indoor.temperature <- 21

		#Conduction heat loss for outside walls, roof, windows, and outer doors:

		temp1 <- u.factor * surface.area * (indoor.temperature - average.outdoor.temperature.month) * period.length / 1000 

		temp1 <- subset(temp1@output, Surface=="Outside wall" | Surface=="Roof" | Surface=="Window" | Surface=="Outer door")
		temp1 <- aggregate(temp1[,colnames(temp1)=='Result'],by=list(temp1$Construction.year, temp1$Surface, temp1$Month),FUN="sum",na.rm="TRUE")
		names(temp1) <- c("Construction.year", "Surface", "Month", "Result") 

		#Conduction heat loss for ground floor:		

		temp2 <- u.factor * surface.area * (indoor.temperature - (average.outdoor.temperature.year + 5 + soil.temperature.difference)) * period.length / 1000

		temp2 <- subset(temp2@output, Surface=="Ground floor")
		temp2 <- aggregate(temp2[,colnames(temp2)=='Result'],by=list(temp2$Construction.year, temp2$Surface, temp2$Month),FUN="sum",na.rm="TRUE")
		names(temp2) <- c("Construction.year", "Surface", "Month", "Result") 

		#Combination of all heat conduction routes into a single value:

		out <- rbind(temp1, temp2)
		out <- aggregate(out[,colnames(temp2)=='Result'],by=list(out$Construction.year, out$Month),FUN="sum",na.rm="TRUE")
		names(out) <- c("Construction.year", "Month", "Result") 

		return(out)
	}
)



oprint(EvalOutput(conduction.heat.loss))



#Heat loss via active air ventilation

ventilation.heat.loss <- Ovariable(
	
	name="ventilation.heat.loss",
	dependencies = data.frame(
		Name=c("ventilation.rate", "ventilation.heat.recovery", "total.floor.area", "average.outdoor.temperature.month", "period.length"),
		Ident= c("Op_en5397")
	),
	formula = function(dependencies, ...) {

		indoor.temperature <- 21

		#Building air removal rate (m3/s):		

		temp1 <- ventilation.rate * total.floor.area / 1000

		#ventilation unit heat loss (W/K):

		temp2 <- 1.2 * 1000 * temp1 * (1 - ventilation.heat.recovery)

		#total heat loss

		out <- temp2 * (indoor.temperature - average.outdoor.temperature.month) * period.length / 1000
		
		return(temp1)
	}
)



oprint(EvalOutput(ventilation.heat.loss))

Rationale

Heat consumption of a building depends on the outdoor air temperature, preferred indoor air temperature, insulation, air tightness and surface area of the building envelope (walls, roof, floor, windows, doors), ventilation rate and heat recovery from the ventilated air, heating system (efficiency of heat production and recovery of lost heat), hot water demand, internal heat gains from people and electrical equipment, and external heat gains from the sun.

Models for calculating building heat consumption

D5 Suomen rakentamismääräyskokoelma
- Ohjeet 2007^[1]
- Ohjeet 2012^[2]

Outdoor temperature in Finland

Finnish Meteorological Institute temperature statistics^[3]:
- Monthly temperatures (Celsius) in different observation points in Finland in 1971-2000
- Areas (Southern Finland, Western Finland, Eastern Finland, Northern Finland) are defined based on Statistics Finland major regions classification^[4]
- The average monthly temperature in each area has been calculated as the mean of all the observation points (cities) within that area.

Area/City	January	February	March	April	May	June	July	August	September	October	November	December	Average for September-May
Southern Finland
Kaarina (Yltöinen)	-4.6	-5.5	-1.9	3.1	9.6	14.4	16.9	15.3	10.4	5.7	1	-2.8	1.7
Helsinki-Vantaa (airport)	-5.2	-5.7	-2.2	3.3	10	14.6	16.9	15.3	10.1	5.2	0.1	-3.2	1.4
Lahti (Laune)	-6.8	-7.3	-2.9	2.8	9.9	14.6	16.6	14.6	9.1	4.2	-0.8	-4,8	0.4
Lappeenranta (airport)	-8	-8.1	-3.2	2.5	9.9	14.7	17.2	14.9	9.4	3.9	-1.4	-5.2	0
Average	-6.2	-6.7	-2.6	2.9	9.9	14.6	16.9	15.0	9.8	4.8	-0.3	-4.0	0.9
Western Finland
Tampere-Pirkkala (airport)	-6.7	-7	-2.8	3	9.5	14.4	16.6	14.6	9.4	4.7	-1	-4.6	0.5
Jyväskylä (airport)	-8.5	-8.7	-4	1.4	8.7	14	16	13.7	8.2	3.2	-2.2	-6.4	-0.9
Seinäjoki (Pelmaa)	-7.1	-7.3	-3.2	2.2	8.8	13.9	15.4	13.8	8.7	3.9	-1.4	-5.3	-0.1
Average	-7.4	-7.7	-3.3	2.2	9.0	14.1	16.0	14.0	8.8	3.9	-1.5	-5.4	-0.2
Eastern Finland
Tohmajärvi (Kemie)	-10	-9.8	-4.4	1.3	8.6	14	16.1	13.5	8.2	3	-2.9	-7.3	-1.5
Valtimo (Kk)	-11.1	-10.8	-5	0.6	8	13.7	16	13.3	7.8	2.3	-3.7	-8.7	-2.3
Siikajoki	-9.4	-9	-4.4	1	7.6	13.1	15.5	13	7.9	2.8	-3.1	-7.3	-1.5
Average	-10.2	-9.9	-4.6	1.0	8.1	13.6	15.9	13.3	8.0	2.7	-3.2	-7.8	-1.8
Northern Finland
Rovaniemi (airport)	-11.7	-11.0	-6.1	-1.0	5.8	12.2	14.9	12.1	6.6	0.2	-6.1	-10.0	-3.7

Jylhä et al. 2009^[5]
- Estimates for climate change in Finland by the Finnish Meteorologigal Institute.
- Projected change in seasonal and annual mean temperature (Celsius) in 2010-2039 relative to 1971-2000 as averaged over the territory of Finland. In addition to the best estimate (50%), six other percentiles of the probability distribution are given. The projection is based on the simulations performed with 19 global climate models, with IPCC greenhouse gas emission scenarios A1B, A2 and B1 considered equally likely.

Probability distribution percentile:	5 %	10 %	25 %	50 %	75 %	90 %	95 %
Winter	1.1	1.4	1.8	2.2	2.7	3.1	3.3
Spring	0.4	0.6	1	1.4	1.9	2.3	2.5
Summer	0	0.3	0.6	1.1	1.5	1.9	2.1
Autumn	0.6	0.8	1.1	1.4	1.7	2	2.2
Annual	0.7	0.9	1.2	1.5	1.9	2.2	2.3

Indoor air temperature

Finnish health based guideline values (Celsius degrees) for indoor air temperature in residential buildings^[6]:
- Good level: 21 C
- Lowest acceptable level: 18 C
- Highest acceptable level: 26 C
- Highest recommended level during heating period: 23-24 C

Building characteristics

Building structure U-values (heat transfer coefficient, W / m² K) given in Finnish building regulations:

	1978-1985		1985-2002		2003-2006		2007-2010		2010-
Building structure	Mass less than 100 kg / m2	Mass over 100 kg / m2	Warm area > 17 °C	Half warm area > 5 °C	Warm area > 17 °C	Half warm area > 5 °C	Warm area 17 °C	Half warm area > 5 °C	Warm area 17 °C	Half warm area > 5 °C
Wall	0,29	0,35	0,28	0,45	0,25	0,45	0,24	0,38	0,17	0,26
Roof	0,23	0,29	0,22	0,45	0,16	0,45	0,15	0,28	0,09	0,14
Floor	0,23	0,29	0,22	0,45	0,16	0,45	0,15	0,28	0,09	0,26
Floor structure directly against ground	0,4	0,4	0,36	0,45	0,25	0,45	0,24	0,34	0,16	0,24
Window			2,1	3,1	1,4	2,1	1,4	1,8	1	1,4
Door			0,7	2,9	1,4	2,1	1,4	1,8	1	1,4

Development of building characteristics in Finland^[7]

	50's	60's	70's	80's	New (2009), standard	New (2009), tight
Roof, U-value	0.3	0.28	0.25	0.25	0.16	0.16
Floor, U-value	0.3	0.3	0.3	0.3	0.2	0.2
Wall, U-value	0.48	0.4	0.3	0.28	0.25	0.25
Window, U-value	2.1	2.1	1.6	1.4	1.4	1.4
n50 (air leakage)	12	10	7	7	4	1
Air exchange technique	Gravitational	Gravitational	Mechanical	Mechanical	Mechanical with heat recovery	Mechanical with heat recovery

Window surface area in the 2010 Finnish building regulations^[8]
- The guideline value (vertailuarvo) for the total surface area of windows is 15% from the total surface area of floors completely or partly above the ground level.
- The maximum value for the total surface area of windows is 50% from the total surface area of the outside walls.

Warm water consumption

Dependencies

Outdoor air temperature
Indoor air temperature
Building envelope (walls, roof, floor, windows, doors)
- Insulation (heat conductance)
- Air tightness (involuntary air leakage)
Air ventilation (rate, heat recovery)
Heating system (heat production efficiency and heat loss from distribution within a building)
Internal heat gains (electrical equipment, people, recovery of heat loss from heat distribution within a building)
External heat gains (sun)
Hot water demand

Formula

Keywords

Building, heat consumption

References

↑ Ympäristöministeriö 2007. Rakennuksen energiakulutuksen ja lämmitystehon tarpeen laskenta.. Ohjeet 2007. D5 Suomen rakentamismääräyskokoelma, Ympäristöminiteriö, Asunto- ja rakennusosasto.
↑ Ympäristöministeriö 2007. Rakennuksen energiakulutuksen ja lämmitystehon tarpeen laskenta.. Ohjeet 2007. D5 Suomen rakentamismääräyskokoelma, Ympäristöminiteriö, Asunto- ja rakennusosasto. Luonnos 28.9.2010
↑ Ilmatieteenlaitos, kuukausitilastot
↑ Tilastokeskus, Suomen suuraluejako
↑ Jylhä et al. 2009. Arvioita Suomen muuttuvasta ilmastosta sopeutumistutkimuksia varten. ACCLIM-hankkeen raportti 2009. Ilmatieteen laitos, raportti 2009:4.
↑ Sosiaali- ja terveysministeriö 2003. Asumisterveysohje. Asuntojen ja muiden oleskelutilojen fysikaaliset, kemialliset ja mikrobiologiset tekijät. Sosiaali- ja terveysministeriön oppaita 2003:1.
↑ Tutkija Virpi Leivo (Tampereen teknillinen yliopisto, rakennustekniikka), esitys "Rakennusten energiatehokkuus, sisäympäristön laatu ja terveys" -workshopissa Kuopiossa 12.8.2009.
↑ Ympäristöministeriö 2008. Rakennusten lämmöneristys. Määräykset 2010. C3 Suomen rakentamismääräyskokoelma. Ympäristöministeriö, Rakennetun ympäristön osasto.

Related files

Unit heat consumption of buildings in Finland. Opasnet . [1]. Accessed 24 Nov 2024.

[1] Ympäristöministeriö 2007. Rakennuksen energiakulutuksen ja lämmitystehon tarpeen laskenta.. Ohjeet 2007. D5 Suomen rakentamismääräyskokoelma, Ympäristöminiteriö, Asunto- ja rakennusosasto.

[2] Ympäristöministeriö 2007. Rakennuksen energiakulutuksen ja lämmitystehon tarpeen laskenta.. Ohjeet 2007. D5 Suomen rakentamismääräyskokoelma, Ympäristöminiteriö, Asunto- ja rakennusosasto. Luonnos 28.9.2010

[3] Ilmatieteenlaitos, kuukausitilastot

[4] Tilastokeskus, Suomen suuraluejako

[5] Jylhä et al. 2009. Arvioita Suomen muuttuvasta ilmastosta sopeutumistutkimuksia varten. ACCLIM-hankkeen raportti 2009. Ilmatieteen laitos, raportti 2009:4.

[6] Sosiaali- ja terveysministeriö 2003. Asumisterveysohje. Asuntojen ja muiden oleskelutilojen fysikaaliset, kemialliset ja mikrobiologiset tekijät. Sosiaali- ja terveysministeriön oppaita 2003:1.

[7] Tutkija Virpi Leivo (Tampereen teknillinen yliopisto, rakennustekniikka), esitys "Rakennusten energiatehokkuus, sisäympäristön laatu ja terveys" -workshopissa Kuopiossa 12.8.2009.

[8] Ympäristöministeriö 2008. Rakennusten lämmöneristys. Määräykset 2010. C3 Suomen rakentamismääräyskokoelma. Ympäristöministeriö, Rakennetun ympäristön osasto.

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