Health effects of transport noise in Europe

About transport noise

Noise from road, rail, and air traffic affects a great number of people. Exposure to transport noise may cause sleep disturbance as well as annoyance, potentially leading to high blood pressure and increased incidence of myocardial infarction (WHO, 2000b; Miedema & Vos 2007; Babisch 2006, 2008). Transport noise exposure as a part of total environmental noise has also been linked to effects on cognition. Transport noise is selected in this study due to its ubiquity and high public health impact. In addition, due to the economic significance of transport, noise levels despite technological progress keep on increasing over time.

Selected health endpoints and exposure-response functions

As health end-points, high sleep disturbance and Ischemic Heart Disease (IHD) were included (Miedema & Vos, 2007; Babisch 2006, 2008). Hypertension and related heart disease due to aircraft noise was not considered because no clear review could be identified. Nevertheless, since causal relationships are very likely and have been reported recently, this health effect may be considered in the near future (Babisch & Kamp, 2009). For railway noise no significant associations with hypertension and IHD could be identified (Barregard et al., 2009).

Effects on cognition were also excluded, as these are difficult to quantify. In addition, severe annoyance, as annoyance was not included as annoyance does not fall weithin our definition of health and not considered a health effect by, amongst others, WHO. Some other studies (e.g. Knol & Staatsen, 2005) have applied a broader definition of health, in which annoyance was included as a health effect because it reduces quality of life. These studies show a substantial burden of disease due to transport noise related annoyance.

The formulas applied to estimate transport noise related high sleep disturbance (HSD) are as follows. The results directly give the number of people severely sleep disturbed at a certain decibel level for each noise source (Miedema et al., 2002, Miedema & Vos, 2007):

Road traffic noise: %HSD = 20.8 - 1.05L_night+ 0.01486(L_night)²

Railway traffic noise: %HSD = 11.3 - 0.55L_night+ 0.00759 (L_night)²

Aircraft noise: %HSD = 18.147 - 0.956L_night+ 0.01482(L_night)²

L_night is a measure of night-time noise, defined as the yearly average of night noise levels (23–7h) at the façade of houses. The formulas can be applied in the range of L_night from 45 to 65 (max. 70) dB(A) (data are regularly available for >50dB(A)).

There is no exclusive causal mechanism postulated specifically to myocardial infarction (MI). Therefore, the OR for MI has been applied to all types of ischemic heart disease (Babisch, 2008) according to the following formula (Babisch 2006, 2008):

OR = 1.63 – 0.000613*(L_day,16h)2 + 0.00000736*(L_day,16h)3

L_day,16h is defined as the yearly average of day and evening noise levels (7-23h) and L_day as the yearly average of day noise levels (7-19h) and L_evening as the yearly average of evening noise levels (19–23h). The exposure-response functions are valid for L_day,16h noise levels ranging from 55 to approximately 80 dB(A).

FIGURE 3-4. The exposure-response functions for high sleep disturbance (HSD)

FIGURE 3-4. The exposure-response functions for high sleep disturbance (HSD; blue axis) and ischeamic heart disease (red axis) presented in graphical form for road, rail and air traffic noise. The OR for Myocardial Infarction, which we applied for all ischeamic heart disease (IHD), is modelled only for road traffic (red curve). (Dotted lines display E-R functions outside the range where they are considered valid).

Exposure data

The exposure metric used is the average 24h-noise level day-evening-night (L_den) and the average 8h-noise level during night-time (L_night) in dB(A), separated for road, aircraft and railway traffic. These indices have been suggested by the European Environmental Noise Directive (2002/49/EC, “END”, (EU, 2002).

From the first phase of END-reporting, carried out in 2007/2008, noise exposure data per 5dB(A) categories are now available for most of the EU-countries. These data concern:

• agglomerations with more than 250 000 inhabitants (separately for road, aircraft and railway traffic);
• roads outside agglomerations with more than 6 000 000 vehicles/passages per year;
• railways outside agglomerations with more than 60 000 trains/passages per year;
• major airports with air traffic higher than 50 000 movements/flights per year (some separated for inside and outside agglomerations and total).

These data have been aggregated recently and still are to some extent being processed. So far, they only cover a relatively small percentage of the EU population. The data are presented in Table 3-11. The population coverage of the data for the countries that have so far been included depends substantially on their urbanity, on the administrative prerequisites (e.g. extent of cities) and on the location of country (central or in periphery) and resulting transit influences. In consequence, the comparability of the countries is limited. Additionally, data for Belgium until April 2010 only included Flanders. For France, only data for major agglomerations were included. Only exposure levels above L_night 50dB (L_den 55 dB) are reported in END data, so there are no data about exposure below those levels in the END database.

For ischemic heart disease, the exposure-response function was calculated for a 16h-daytime level (L_day). As a crude but practical tool for conversion, the following easy formula was used:

L_day,16h = L_den – 2.5 (Babisch, 2008)

Unfortunately, END-reporting of many included countries until April 2010 was only complete for L_den but incomplete considering data about L_night. Therefore adjustments had to be made for calculation of people affected by high/severe sleep disturbance. As a crude but practical tool for conversion, the following easy formula was used:

L_den = L_night + 7.5 (expert judgement after first data-pooling, most valid for road traffic noise in agglomerations)

There are large differences concerning these conversion factors, especially for conversion from L_den to L_night, for which estimates range from +5 (very urban) up to +11 (including rural areas) (WG-AEN 2006). For comparability, 7.5 was chosen as a conservative factor, even though in some cases there might be an underestimation of real exposure.

END-reporting covers 5dB(A)-categories. For modelling purposes, the mid-values of the 5dB(A)-categories (50–54.9 → 52.5) were inserted in the non-linear polynomials as a feasible simplification.

TABLE 3-11. Baseline exposures for noise (Environmental Noise Directive reporting data, 2007/2008).

Road traffic, agglomerations		Raw Lden [dB(A)] data from END-Reporting 1st stage 2007
Countries	Population in agglomerations	55-59 dB	60-64 dB	65-69 dB	70-74 dB	>75 dB	Population 2004	Exposed >55dB	Exposed population
Belgium (BE)	n/a	n/a	n/a	n/a	n/a	n/a	10 359 676	n/a	n/a
Finland (FI)	559 716	87 249	88 660	46 648	14 860	73	5 231 166	237 490	4.5%
France (FR)	12 704 947	1 665 222	2 198 662	2 477 022	1 908 546	226 977	60 623 894	8 476 429	14.0 %
Germany (DE)	13 499 029	1 219 623	828 255	652 079	336 339	48 910	82 627 588	3 085 206	3.7 %
Italy (IT)	2 934 473	1 957 800	421 300	151 400	80 000	4 700	58 474 754	2 615 200	4.5 %
Netherlands (NL)	5 002 655	827 900	673 300	344 100	44 500	1 000	16 263 535	1 890 800	11.6 %
Sum	34 700 820	5 757 794	4 210 177	3 671 249	2 384 245	281 660	233 580 613	16 305 125	7.0 %
Road traffic, outside agglom.1		Raw Lden [dB(A)] data from END-Reporting 1st stage 2007
Countries	Road length km	55-59 dB	60-64 dB	65-69 dB	70-74 dB	>75 dB	Population 2004	Exposed >55dB	Exposed population
Belgium (BE)	2 792	201 300	92 100	83 900	91 900	18 000	10 359 676	487 200	4.7 %
Finland (FI)	647	590	246	81	13	1	5 231 166	931	0.02 %
France (FR)	20 274	1 821 229	866 917	461 855	242 042	126 184	60 623 894	3 518 226	5.8 %
Germany (DE)	17 056	1 858 365	840 909	490 458	239 627	41 814	82 627 588	3 471 173	4.2 %
Italy (IT)	6 324	1 654 840	1 382 550	910 380	370 470	121 100	58 474 754	4 439 340	7.6 %
Netherlands (NL)	3 496	128 600	43 600	13 200	1 900	100	16 263 535	187 400	1.2 %
Sum	50 589	5 664 924	3 226 322	1 959 874	945 952	307 199	233 580 613	12 104 270	5.2 %
Rail traffic, agglomerations		Raw Lden [dB(A)] data from END-Reporting 1st stage 2007
Countries	Population in agglomerations	55-59 dB	60-64 dB	65-69 dB	70-74 dB	>75 dB	Population 2004	Exposed >55dB	Exposed population
Belgium (BE)	n/a	n/a	n/a	n/a	n/a	n/a	10 359 676	n/a	n/a
Finland (FI)	559 716	27 513	25 390	16 669	207	0	5 231 166	69 779	1.3 %
France (FR)	2 698 604	48 000	36 600	14 300	8 800	0	60 623 894	107 700	0.2 %
Germany (DE)	10 752 155	194 617	112 457	71 768	18 422	1 919	82 627 588	399 183	0.5 %
Italy (IT)	n/a	n/a	n/a	n/a	n/a	n/a	58 474 754	n/a	n/a
Netherlands (NL)	5 002 655	118 600	60 700	25 000	8 800	1 000	16 263 535	214 100	1.3 %
Sum	19 013 130	388 730	235 147	127 737	36 229	2 919	233 580 613	790 762	0.3 %
Rail traffic, outside agglom.1		Raw Lden [dB(A)] data from END-Reporting 1st stage 2007
Countries	Rail length km	55-59 dB	60-64 dB	65-69 dB	70-74 dB	>75 dB	Population 2004	Exposed >55dB	Exposed population
Belgium (BE)	461	33 300	19 700	16 100	13 400	3 900	10 359 676	86 400	0.8 %
Finland (FI)	96	255	95	48	5	0	5 231 166	403	0.0 %
France (FR)	1 781	624 242	419 956	250 289	139 459	105 232	60 623 894	1 539 178	2.5 %
Germany (DE)	4 435	831 000	304 200	117 500	57 800	43 000	82 627 588	1 353 500	1.6 %
Italy (IT)	438	89 900	61 900	37 300	33 000	24 800	58 474 754	246 900	0.4 %
Netherlands (NL)	854	134 000	76 500	38 100	12 500	3 000	16 263 535	264 100	1.6 %
Sum	8 065	1 712 697	882 351	459 337	256 164	179 932	233 580 613	3 490 481	1.5 %
Air traffic, large airports		Raw Lden [dB(A)] data from END-Reporting 1st stage 2007
Countries	Movements per year	55-59 dB	60-64 dB	65-69 dB	70-74 dB	>75 dB	Population 2004	Exposed >55dB	Exposed population
Belgium (BE)	253 257	106 698	14 766	1 787	0	0	10 359 676	123 251	1.2 %
Finland (FI)	173 000	57 200	1 700	100	0	0	5 231 166	59 000	1.1 %
France (FR)	1 376 340	107 800	9 000	12 100	0	0	60 623 894	128 900	0.2 %
Germany (DE)	1 862 273	479 500	178 000	25 700	1 700	0	82 627 588	684 900	0.8 %
Italy (IT)	992 506	157 500	49 200	9 800	1 400	200	58 474 754	218 100	0.4 %
Netherlands (NL)	440 153	61 600	6 100	1 200	100	0	16 263 535	69 000	0.4 %
Sum	5 097 529	970 298	258 766	50 687	3 200	200	233 580 613	1 283 151	0.5 %